Brief History of Microbiology

Brief History of Microbiology 1- How Can Microbes Be Classified? Fungi, Protozoa, Algae, Prokaryotes and other organisms of importance to microbiologists B- The Golden Age of Microbiology 1- Is Spontaneous Generation Of Microbial Life Possible? Redis Experiment, Needhams Experiment, Spallanzanis Experiment, Pasteurs Experiment. CHAPTER (1): A BRIEF HISTORY OF MICROBIOLOGY Microbiology is the study of organisms and agents too small to be seen clearly by the naked eye. It is the study of microorganisms, or germs or microbes. However, some of these microorganisms are large and visible by our naked eye such as mushrooms, brown algae, and lichens. Viruses, bacteria, algae, fungi, and protozoa belong to microorganisms. Life would not exist without microorganisms. Plants depend on microorganisms to help them obtain their nitrogen they need from air. Animals such as cows and sheep need microorganisms in order to digest the cellulose in their diets. Our ecosystem rely on microorganisms to enrich soil, degrade wastes and supports life. Without microbial recyclers, the world would be buried under dead organisms. We use beneficial microorganisms to make our food such as cheese, yoghurt, bread, to develop our vaccines, hormones, vitamins and antibiotics. The human body is home to billions of microorganisms, many of which help keep us healthy. Microorganisms are not only an essential part of our lives; they are quite literally a part of us. Microorganisms can be both beneficial and harmful (infectious disease agents) to humans, animals and plants. Some harmful microorganisms also do cause diseases, from the common cold to AIDS. The threats of bioterrorism and new or re-merging infectious diseases are real problem. We will explore all the roles (both harmful and beneficial) that microorganisms play in our lives in this fascinating course. Importance of bacteria Bacteria can be categorized into harmful and useful bacteria, while some bacteria are non harmful-non useful. Harmful bacteria Bacteria cause some major diseases to humans, animals and plants. Among these diseases: cholera, typhoid, tetanus, pneumonia, tuberculosis and meningitis. Some pathogenic bacteria produce poisonous chemicals called toxins which affect certain parts of the host body. In food industry, bacteria cause spoilage of food and food poising. Useful bacteria Bacteria produce antibiotics which for the treatment of diseases. Bacteria provide enzymes for biological washing powders. Bacteria are used as microbial insecticides protecting crops from insect pests. Bacteria are used to leach out metals from some low grade ores such as copper and gold. Bacteria contribute greatly to food industry (butter, cheese, and yogurt). Certain bacteria are used to convert lactose (milk sugar) into lactic acid. Certain bacteria are used to convert alcohol into vinegar. Â  Bacteria have an essential role in the natural cycles of matter. In the soil, bacteria affect fertility, structure and productivity of corps. One of the most important roles of bacteria is the breakdown of dead organisms and organic wastes into its basic inorganic parts. Carbon dioxide, water, nitrogen, and sulfur are some of the most important materials returned to the soil and atmosphere. Such cycling of materials could not occur in the absence of certain bacteria. 9. As a source of food (single cell protein (SCP). Bacteria are a good source of (SCP) with plenty of food and space. (SCP can be produced using bacteria growing in waste paper, pollutants or any food waste product). The Early Years Of Microorganisms The early years of microbiology brought the first observations of microbial life, and the initial efforts to organize them into logical classification. Early investigators suspected the existence of microorganisms and their role in disease development even before microorganisms were detected. The first person observed and described microorganisms was Antony van Leeunwenhoek (The Father of Bacteriology and Protozoology) (Dutch) in 1674. He was a tailor and a lens grinder. He used to manufacture lenses to examine the quality of the clothes. He invented simple microscope in 1674 and he observed, drew, and measured large numbers of minute living organisms including bacteria and protozoa in pond water. He also described the motion, morphology and diversity of bacteria and protozoa. How Can Microbes Be Classified? Shortly after Leeunwenhoek made his discoveries, the Swedish botanist Linnaeus developed a taxonomic system-that is a system for naming plants and animals and grouping similar organisms together. Linnaeus and other scientists of that period grouped all organisms into either animal kingdom or the plant kingdom. Today biologists use the five kingdoms classification system and the three kingdoms classification system. The microorganisms that Leeunwenhoek described can be grouped into five basic categories: fungi, protozoa, algae, prokaryotes and small animals. The only microbes not described by Leeunwenhoek are viruses which are too small to be seen without an electron microscope. Cells are of two types: 1- Prokaryotic cells (pro = before, karyon = nut or kernel). Example: Bacteria (i) Organisms very simple in shape. (ii) The cells lack true membrane delimited nucleus. 2- Eukaryotic cells (Eu = true, karyon = nut or kernel). Examples: Algae, fungi, protozoa, higher plants and animals. (i) Morphologically more complex than prokaryotes and larger in size. (ii) Organisms with true nucleus. They have a membrane enclose nucleus. . Biologists have divided living organisms into five kingdoms: Kingdom Monera or Prokaryote: includes prokaryotic organisms (Bacteria and archea) and Cyanobacteria (the blue-green bacteria, formerly called blue-green algae). Kingdom Protista: Include either unicellular or colonial eukaryotic organisms that lack true tissues (Protozoa, small algae, and lower fungi). Kingdom Fungi: Includes eukaryotic organisms with absorptive nutrition and often multinucleate. Fungi includes moulds (filamentous fungi) and yeasts (unicellular fungi). Kingdom Animalia: Multicellular animals with ingestive nutrition (Vertebrates and invertebrates). Kingdom Plantae: Multicellular plants with walled eukaryotic cells and photosynthetic ability. Viruses do not fit into the classification of living organisms (five kingdoms classification system) because they are dependent on other cells for their reproduction (obligate parasites). Nevertheless viruses are also studied by microbiologists. The recent classification divided organisms into 3 kingdoms based on the analysis of the 16S RNA. Bacteria (True bacteria or Eubacteria). Archaea (Archaeobacteria). Eukarya (All eukaryotic organisms). Fungi (Mycology) Fungi are organisms whose cells are eukaryotic with a true nucleus surrounded by a nuclear membrane. Fungi differ from animals by having cell walls. Fungi are different from plants because they are heterotrophic (obtain their food from other organisms which is different from plants (obtain their food by themselves through photosynthesis i.e. autotrophic). Microscopic fungi include molds (filamentous fungi) and yeasts (unicellular fungi). Molds are multicellular organisms that are grow as long filaments called hyphae that intertwine to make up the body of the mold. Molds reproduce by sexual and asexual spores which produce new individuals. Yeasts are unicellular and they reproduce by budding. Many types of fungi are beneficial and some are also very harmful to humans causing many diseases. Mushroom is a typical example of macroscopic fungi. Some mushrooms are also poisonous and can cause death. Protozoa (Protozoology or Parasitology) Protozoa are single celled eukaryotic microorganisms with true nucleus that are similar to animals in their nutritional needs and cellular structure. The suffix protozoa in Greek mean (the first animals). Most protozoa are capable of locomotion through pseudopodia, cilia or flagella. Protozoa typically live freely in water, but some live inside animal hosts, where they can cause diseases. Most protozoa reproduce asexually, however some can reproduce sexually. Algae (Phycology) Algae are unicellular or multicellular photosynthetic autotrophic organisms. Algae are categorized on the basis of their pigmentation, storage products and their cell walls. Large algae commonly called seaweeds and kelps are common in the oceans. Unicellular algae are common in freshwater ponds, streams and lakes and in the oceans as well. They are the major food source of small aquatic and marine animals and provide most of the worlds oxygen as a by-product of photosynthesis. Prokaryotes (Bacteriology) Prokaryotic microorganisms are unicellular microbes that lack nuclei. There are two kinds of prokaryotes: true bacteria (Eu-bacteria) and archaea (Archaeobacteria). Bacterial cell walls are composed of a polysaccharide called peptidoglycan, although some bacteria lack cell walls. Bacteria without cell walls are called mycoplasma. The cell walls of archaea lack peptidoglycan and instead are composed of other polymers. Most bacteria and archaea are much smaller than the eukaryotic microorganisms. True bacteria are found in all environments, however, archaea are only found in extreme environments (Difficult or harsh environments) (e.g. High or low temperature, high or low pH, high salinity, high pressure). Other Organisms Of Importance To Microbiologists Microbiologists also study parasitic worms which range in size from microscopic forms to adult tapeworms over 7 meters in length. The only type of microbes that remained hidden from Leeunwenhoek and other early microbiologists are viruses, viroids and prions which are much smaller than the smallest prokaryotic microorganisms and are not visible by light microscopy. Viruses could not seen until the electron microscope was invented in 1932. All complete viruses are acellular (not composed of cells) obligatory parasites composed of small amounts of genetic material (genome) (RNA or DNA never both) surrounded by a protein coat. The incomplete virus (Prions) consists only of protein coat and there is no nucleic acid and only attacks human and animals. While the incomplete virus (Virioid) consists only of nucleic acid and there is no protein coat and only attacks plants. Leeunwenhoek fist reported the existence of microorganisms in 1674, but microbiology did not develop significantly as a field of study for almost two centuries. There were a number of reasons for this delay. First, Leeunwenhoek was a suspicious and secretive man. Though he built over than 400 microscopes, he never trained an apprentice, and he never sold or gave away a microscope. When Leeunwenhoek died, the secret of creating superior microscope was lost. It took almost 100 years for scientists to make microscopes of equivalent quality. Another reason that microbiology was slow to develop as a science is that scientists in the 1700s considered microbes to be curiosities of nature and in-significant to human affairs. But in the late 1800s, scientists began to adopt a new philosophy, one that demand experimental proof rather than mere acceptance of traditional knowledge. This fresh philosophical foundation, accompanied by improved microscopes, new laboratory techniques, and a drive to answer a series of important questions, propelled microbiology to the forefront as a scientific discipline. The Golden Age of Microbiology For about 50 years during what is now called The Golden Age of Microbiology, scientists were driven by the search for answers o the following 4 questions: Is spontaneous generation of microbial life possible? What causes fermentation? What causes diseases? How can we prevent infection and disease? Competition among scientists, who were striving to be the first to answer these questions, drove exploration and discovery in microbiology during the late 1800s and early 1900s. These scientists discoveries and the fields of study they initiated continue to shape the course of microbiological research today. 1 Is Spontaneous Generation Of Microbial Life Possible? In the ancient times, many peoples believed that living organisms could develop from non-living matter, and they named this phenomenon as spontaneous generation (abiogenesis). Aristotle believed that simple invertebrates could arise by spontaneous generation. He also believed that frogs and shrimps could arise from mud, insects from the morning dew and maggots from decaying meat. The validity of this theory came under challenge in the 17th century. Redis Experiment (1626-1697). The spontaneous generation conflict was finally challenged by the Redi (1688), who carried out a series of experiments using decayed meat and he studies the ability of meat to produce maggots spontaneously. He concluded that maggots do not arise by spontaneous generation. In unsealed flask: The maggots covered the meat within few days. In the sealed flasks: The flies were kept away and no maggots appeared on the meat. In the gauze-covered flask: The flies were kept away and no maggots appeared on the meat, although a few maggots appeared on the top of the gauze. Needhams Experiment (1713-1781). He boiled beef broth in a sealed flask. Some days later he demonstrated that many of these flasks became cloudy and contained microorganisms. He thought that the organic matter in the meat contained a vital force that could give the properties of life from non-living matter. Since he heated the flasks he thought that the microorganisms is coming from the non living beef broth. Spallanzanis Experiment (1729-1799). Spallanzanis in 1799 reported results that contradicted Needhams findings. Spallanzani boiled some infusions for one hour and sealed the vials by melting their slender necks closed. His infusion remained clear, unless he broke the seal and exposed the infusion to air, after which they became cloudy with microorganisms. He concluded three things: Needham had either failed to heat his vials sufficiently. Microorganisms exist in the air and can contaminate the experiments. Spontaneous generation of microorganisms does not occur. All living things arise from other living things. Criticisms of Spallanzanis work were: The sealed vials did not allow enough air for organisms to survive. The prolonged heating for long time (one hour) destroyed the Life force. The debate continued until the French chemist Louis Pasteur conducted experiments that finally solved the theory of spontaneous generation to rest. Pasteurs Experiment (1822-1895). In 1861, Pasteur (The Father of Microbiology) solved the spontaneous generation conflict. The Swan Neck Experiment Pasteur placed nutrient solutions in flasks heated their necks in a flame and drew them out in a variety of curved shapes, and he kept the ends of the neck open to the air. He then boiled the nutrient solutions for a few minutes and allowed them to cool. No microbial growth was observed; even the flask contents were exposed to the external air currents. Pasteur pointed out that no growth was observed because dust and germs had been collected on the walls of the curved pre-heated necks. If the necks were broken, microbial growth appeared. The results obtained by Pasteur were against the spontaneous generation theory. 2- What Causes Fermentation? Pasteur developed the pasteurization a process of heating the grape juice just enough to kill most contaminating bacteria without changing the juice backs qualities so it could then be inoculated with yeast to ensure that alcohol fermentation occurred. Pasteur thus began the field of industrial microbiology or biotechnology in which microbes are used to manufacture beneficial products. Today pasteurization is used routinely on milk to eliminate pathogenic bacteria that cause tuberculosis and is also used to eliminate pathogenic bacteria and fungi in juices and other beverages. Because of Pasteur many significant accomplishments in working with microbes, Pasture is considered the Father of Microbiology. 3- What Causes Diseases? Robert Koch (German Doctor) (the golden age of microbiology 1880-1920) was the first person to demonstrate the role of bacteria in causing anthrax disease in 1876. Kochs proof that Bacillus anthracis caused anthrax. Koch discovered that bacteria are responsible for causing a disease. This was called the germ theory of disease. The science of etiology (the study of causation of diseases) was dominated by Robert Koch. Koch established criteria for proving the causal relationship between a microorganism and a specific disease. These criteria are known as Koch postulates, and it can be summarized as follows: (i)- The organism should be constantly present in animals or plants suffering from the disease and should not be present in healthy individuals. (ii)- The organism must be cultivated in pure culture away from the animal or plant body. (iii)- Such a culture when inoculated into susceptible animals or plants should initiate the characteristic disease symptoms. (iv)- The organism should be re-isolated from these experimental animals or plants and cultured again in the laboratory, after which it should still be the same as the original organism. Koch also developed media suitable for the isolation of pure bacterial cultures from human body. He developed nutrient broth and nutrient agar media. In 1882 Koch has used these methods to isolate the bacteria that cause tuberculosis. During Kochs studies on bacterial pathogens, it became necessary to isolate suspected bacterial pathogens. At first, he cultured bacteria on sterile surfaces of cut, boiled potatoes. This was unsatisfactory because bacteria would not always grow well on potatoes because of the acidity of the potato tissues. He then tried to solidify regular liquid medium by adding gelatin. Separate bacterial colonies developed after the surface had been streaked with a bacterial sample. When the gelatin medium hardened, individual bacteria produced separate colonies. Despite its advantages, gelatin was not an ideal solidifying agent because it was digested by many bacteria and melted when the temperature rose above 28ÂÂÂ °C. Fannie Hesse suggested a better alternative. She suggested the use of agar as a solidifying agent. Agar is derived from red algae. Agar was not attacked by most bacteria and did not melt until reaching a temperature of 100ÂÂÂ °C unlike gelatin. Richard Petri developed the Petri dish (Plate) in 1887, a container for making solid culture media. This development made possible the isolation of pure cultures that contained only a single microorganism. Koch and his colleagues are also responsible for many other advances in laboratory microbiology, including the following: Simple staining techniques for bacterial cells and flagella. The first photomicrograph of bacteria. The first photograph of bacteria in diseased tissues. Techniques for estimating the number of bacteria in a solution based on the number of colonies that form after inoculation onto a solid surface. The use of steam to sterilize growth media. The use of Petri dishes to hold solid growth media. Aseptic laboratory techniques such as transferring bacteria between media using platinum wire that has been sterilized in a flame. Koch hypothesized that each bacterial colony consisted if the progeny of a single cell. Koch use laboratory animals to inject bacteria and study disease development. For these achievements, Koch is considered as the Father of the Microbiological laboratory. Grams stain Although Koch reported a simple staining technique in 1877, the Danish scientist Gram developed a more important staining method in 1884. His procedure which involves the application of series of dyes made some microbes blue and others red. The blue cells are called the Gram positive and the red cells are called the Gram negative. We now use Gram Stain to separate bacteria into these two large groups. The gram stain is still the most widely used staining technique. It is one of the first steps carried out in any laboratory where bacteria are being identified. 4 How Can We Prevent Infection And Disease? 1 Semmelweis and Hand washing Semmelweis was a physician began requiring medical students to wash hands with chlorinated lime water. 2 Listers Antiseptic Technique Joseph Lister (1867), an English surgeon found indirect evidence that microorganism were agents of human disease. He worked on the prevention of wound infection. He developed a system of antiseptic surgery designed to prevent microorganism from entering wounds. Instruments were heat sterilized and phenol was used on surgical dressings and sprayed over the surgical area. He provided a strong evidence for the role of microorganisms in disease development because phenol which killed bacteria also prevented wound infections. 3 Nightingale and Nursing Nightingale was an English nurse and she is the founder of modern nursing and she introduced cleanliness and antiseptic techniques into nursing practices. 4 Snow and Epidemiology John Snow an English physician plays a key role ion setting standards for good public hygiene to prevent the spread of infectious diseases. His study was the foundation for two branches of microbiology (infection control) and epidemiology (study of the occurrence, distribution and spread of disease in humans). 5 Jenners Vaccine On 1796, Edward Jenner used cowpox-infected material to successfully vaccinate people against human small pox. He names the process vaccination after Vaccinia, the virus that causes cowpox. Jenner invented vaccination or immunization. In honor of Jenners work with cowpox, Pasteur used the term vaccine to refer to all weakened protective strains of pathogens. 6 Ehrlichs magic bullets and Chemotherapy Ehrlich found that chemicals could be used to kill microorganisms. He discovered chemicals active against trypanosomes the protozoan that causes sleeping sickness and against Treponema that cause syphilis. His discoveries began the branch of chemotherapy. The Modern Age of Microbiology 1 How Do Genes work? Over the past 40 yeasts, advances in microbial genetics developed into several new disciplines that are among the faster growing areas of scientific research today; including: Molecular biology A Molecular Biology Molecular biology combines aspects of biochemistry, cell biology and genetics to explain cell function at the molecular level. Molecular biologists are concerned with genome sequencing. A full understating of the genomes of organisms will result in practical ways to limit disease, repair genetic defects and enhance agricultural yield. B Recombinant DNA technology Molecular Biology is applied in recombinant DNA technology, commonly called genetic engineering which was first developed using microbial models. This includes the production of human insulin in genetically engineered bacteria. C Gene therapy An exciting new area of study is the use of recombinant DNA technology for gene therapy. This is a process that involves inserting a missing gene or repairing a defective gene in human cells. This procedure uses harmless viruses to insert a desired gene into host cells where it is incorporated into a chromosome and begins to function normally. 2 What Roles Do Microorganisms Play in the Environment? The study of microorganisms in their natural environment is called environmental Microbiology or microbial ecology. 3 How We Defend Against Disease? Advancements in chemotherapy were made in the 1900s with the discovery of numerous substances such as penicillin and sulfa drugs that inhibit bacteria. 4 The Scope And Relevance of Microbiology Microbiology has both basic aspects and applied aspects. A scientist working in the field of microbiology is called a microbiologist. Many microbiologists are interested in the biology of microorganisms. They may focus on a specific group of microorganisms and are called: Virologist (Virology is the study of viruses), Bacteriologist (Bacteriology is the study of bacteria), Phycologist (Phycology is the study of algae), Mycologist (Mycology is the study of fungi), and Protozoologist (Protozoology is the study of protozoa). Other microbiologist work in other fields such as microbial physiology, microbial cytology, microbial ecology, and microbial taxonomy. Other microbiologists have more practical applied fields such as medical microbiology, food and dairy microbiology, and public health microbiology. Medical Microbiology: Deals with human and animal diseases. Agricultural Microbiology: Deals with the application of microorganisms in agriculture. Public health Microbiology: Deals with the control of the spread of diseases. Food and dairy Microbiology: Deals with the application of microorganisms by man to make foods such as cheese, bread, and other important products. Industrial Microbiology: Deals with the industrial application of microorganisms such as the production of vaccines, antibiotics, vitamins and enzymes. Microbial Ecology or Environmental microbiology: Deals with the relationship between microorganisms and their environments. Microbial physiology and Biochemistry: Deals with the study with physiology of microorganisms and the effects of physical and chemical agents on the survival of microorganisms. 6 What Will The Future Hold? What will microbiologists discover next? Among the questions for the next 50 years are the following: What is the physiology of life forms that can not be grown in laboratory and only known to us now by their nucleic acid sequences? Does life exist beyond planet Earth, and if so, what are its features? How can we reduce the threat of infectious diseases, especially those that can be used by bioterrorists?

Teaching Practices Essay -- Education, Early Childhood Education

In this essay Te Ao Maori, Te Reo Maori, Tikanga Maori and Treaty of Waitangi will be examined. The relevance of these to the teaching practices will be reflected upon. Few appropriate strategies will be discussed to support the implementation of a bicultural curriculum in early childhood education. According to Irwin (1984) for Maori, the creating myths form an important part of their world view, â€Å"conveying myth messages that people practice as ideals and norms in their lives â€Å"(p.1). The Maori creation myths begin with three stages te kore, te po and tea ao Marama. In the beginning there was Te Kore, the nothingness. Then came the te po the night , it was this night that the seven gods began crawling in the narrow space between their parents bodies, who were Rangi (sky father) and Papa (Earth mother). One day Tane –mahuta god of forest, began separating his parents apart so that there was enough room for them to move around in. So when Tane became successful in separating his parents, the world of light – te ao marama was created . The sun used to move across the sky quite rapidly and it used to be hard for the people to finish their daily chores such as cooking, hunting due to the insufficient time of the sun in the sky. So, Maui the demi – god decided one day that he needs to slow down the sun. As stated by Reed (2007) â€Å"Maui battered the sun until he was weakened (p.28). Ultimately, the people were able to finish their chores as sunlight was there for more hours. Te Ao Maori has played a significant role in my teaching practice, because the creation of the Maori myths is similar to showing the children how to grow a seed into a plant, the different growing stages of the plant depict the Maori strategy of growing of ... ... some aspects of treaty and the government has tried to settle the claims and set of tribunals to look into this aspect. Foreshore rights are one of the contributions issues. Government feels the treaty is an important part of New Zealand history and culture. (State Services Commision , 2004). Te Ao Maori, Te Reo Maori, Tikanga Maori and Treaty of Waitangi are an valuable asset of New Zealand and they are protected under the Treaty of Waitangi. Te Ao Maori explains us the creating of myths and legends through the Maori perspective and also that Te Reo Maori (Maori language) is a living treasure (taonga) of New Zealand. Tikanga Maori tells us the importance of the values and beliefs in Maori culture. Treaty of Waitangi holds a special value in the history of New Zealand. Therefore, all the Maori perspective add a significance in the wealth of knowledge.

Discussing Frankenstein Essay

Living in a society, we are accustomed to completing tasks within minutes if not seconds. With this fact in mind, it is very difficult to comprehend the amount of painstaking labor of Victor Frankenstein. The long days eventually turned into months and then into years. Victor observed worms in a graveyard, collected materials, and painstakingly created a being, complete with the intricacies of a human body and mind. After the realization of his greatest achievement, Victor looked upon the lifeless individual as his creation. As the father of this illegitimate being, Victor is already physically and morally responsible for the creature. Since the very beginning of the experiment, Victor was entrusted with this being. Once the creature opened his yellow eyes, Victor relinquished his task to educate his design. Instead of worrying over the creature’s welfare and the interest of others, he drove from his mind all thoughts of the experiment. The monster was left to fend for itself, learning the basic essentials of survival by what he saw an the only food he could find. Only until the monster hurt something of significance to Victor, did the scientist feel accountable. It is no doubt the monster is now evil. His unanswerable question in life is â€Å"why am I here? † The man who gave him life fled from his side just like the rest of society. Victor, at this point in the story, has a choice. The scientist can either make another life form or suffer earthly torments from the monster. By not completing the request of the creation, Victor handed over the lives of his family and friends. Again, Victor can be held morally responsible for the deaths. Creation tells him to make another life form and everything will be alright. The scientist never realized his mistakes. If he has only taken care of his creation, the deaths of his father, wife, brothers, and sisters could have been avoided. With such a brilliant mind, Victor could have been one of the brightest minds in science. If it were not for the irresponsible beginnings of the experiment, the evil in the creature may have never surfaced. Throughout the novel, Frankenstein, the theme of life and death is pervasive in connection to the moral ignorance of Victor and his monster. Evidently both characters showed a great quantity of wrongdoing; however the awaiting actions are all start from one: the creation of life from science. This was thought of as an impossible task, but would prove to be Frankenstein’s foremost dream and goal for his youth and adolescence. Not realizing the severity of the consequences; Victor succeeded in breeding his creature, which would ironically lead to his future destruction. Being unaware to what a creature might do without the proper nourishment from family or friends, Dr. Frankenstein shunned his own creation even though he had the obligation as a parent to foster his child. However, not only did Victor overlook the proper care for his creation, but he also cursed and criticized the appearance of the wretched monster. Frankenstein assembled the beast to look inhuman and rejected what he purposely created. The grotesque look of his child not only repelled his master, but also disgusted the rest of society. Although Victor did not physically commit murder, his denial as a father to his imperfect being was in fact killing the monster from the start. mention the part when F sees monster for the first time It is now obvious that Victor was the most morally irresponsible. He tried to forget his past, as he did not want to be linked with that daemon which was created by his own hands. Frankenstein exhibited selfishness along with small-mindedness. He first ignored his family upon creating his child and then ignored his child upon escaping his workplace. Victor did not think twice and failed to resolve the problem before it augmented. Just a baby being brought into a new and evidently prejudice world, his creation did not know what to do. The monster had to survive in the dangerous world alone with no one to love or give love in return. He had no one to help him, no one to teach him, no one to feed him, no one to even talk to him. Whenever he helped humans, he would always receive harm. He harmed mankind because they harmed him first. Unquestionably, if he were treated with love, he would return the love tenfold. However, Frankenstein was responsible for the miss-education of the child and for the actions of the child. Moreover, Frankenstein was responsible for the deaths of his friends and family. Being the cause of his own unfortunate destiny, Dr. Victor Frankenstein is clearly the one who demonstrated the least moral responsibility. Show preview only The above preview is unformatted text This student written piece of work is one of many that can be found in our GCSE Mary Shelley section.

International Finance Trend of Exchange Rate

International Finance Trend of Exchange Rate Trend of exchange rate over time The graph presented below shows the trend of the weekly exchange rate of the Turkish Lira and Thai Baht against the US dollar for a period of five years that is, between 2008 and 2013.Advertising We will write a custom assessment sample on International Finance: Trend of Exchange Rate specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Based on the graph above, it can be observed that the exchange rate of Turkish Lira was higher than the exchange rate of Thai Baht over the five-year period. The range of exchange rate for the Turkish Lira was between 0.5 and 0.8 while the exchange rate for the Thai Baht against the US dollar was below 0.1 throughout the period. Secondly, it can be observed that the exchange rate for the Turkish Lira against the US dollar fluctuated during the period. There was a slight appreciation in the exchange rate between 2008 and 2009. This indicates that the economy of the country grew strong duri ng the period. Thereafter, the exchange rate depreciated by a small margin between 2009 and 2011. This was caused by the global financial crisis. Between 2012 and 2013, there was an appreciation of the exchange rate. This indicates that the economy recovered from the financial crisis. The country heavily relies on international trade as a key source of income. Therefore, fluctuations in the value of the exchange rate are as a result of market changes. It indicates that the country operates a flexible exchange rate regime. On the other hand, it can be observed the exchange rate for the Thai Baht against the US dollar was fairly constant throughout the period. The value depreciated slightly from values ranging between 0.02 and 0.03. It indicates that the country operates a managed exchange rate regime. Bid and ask price The graph presented below shows the bid-ask spread expressed as percentages for the weekly exchange rate of the Turkish Lira and Thai Baht against the US dollar for a period of five years. Advertising Looking for assessment on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The graph presented above indicates that the percentage of the bid-ask spread for the exchange rate of the Thai Baht against the US dollar was higher than the percentage spread for the Turkish Lira against the US dollar for between part of the five-year period. The bid-ask spread for the exchange rate of the Thai Baht against the US dollar was quite high in 2008. However, by the end of the 2008, the spread declined significantly. It remained fairly stationary between 2009 and 2011. However, in 2012, the company experienced a decline in the value of percentage spread. The high percentage spread can be attributed to a number of factors. The key factor is the perceived risk and political instability in the country. Volatility in the economic conditions in the country also explains the high value of the bid-as k spread. On the other hand, the percentage bid-ask spread for the exchange rate of the Turkish Lira against the US dollar escalated in early 2009. This can be attributed to the global crisis. Thereafter, the spread remained quite low and stable. The lower bid-ask spread is as a result of a large volume of shares traded (OANDA Corporation 1). Cross rates The graph presented below shows the trend of the spot exchange rate of Turkish Lira against the Thai Baht for the five-year period. The graph above indicates that there was a gradual decline in the value of the cross exchange rate during the five-year period. Besides, it can be observed that the graph of actual exchange rate is superimposed on the graph of cross rates calculated. It implies that the calculated cross rate is similar to the actual rate extracted (OANDA Corporation 1). OANDA Corporation 2013, Historical Exchange Rate. Web. https://www1.oanda.com/fx-for-business/historical-rates.Advertising We will write a cus tom assessment sample on International Finance: Trend of Exchange Rate specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More

Free Essays on Music Of The 60s - A Clashing Of Generations

MUSIC OF THE 60’S - A CLASHING OF GENERATIONS The Sixties were an exciting revolutionary period of time with great social and technological change. Some people called it the â€Å"decade of discontent† because of the race riots and demonstrations against the Vietnam War. The sixties were about assassination, unforgettable fashions, civil rights, and sexual freedom. All of these components caused a revolutionary change in the world of popular music. In the sixties, music mirrored the tensions of the era, and played an important role in changing American culture. The verbal content of rock songs turned toward rebellion, social protest, sex, and drugs. Rock and Roll was for and about adolescents. Its lyrics articulated teenage and young adult's problems and concerns. All aspects of the music, its heavy beat, loudness, self-absorbed lyrics, indicated a defiance of adult values and authority. This defiance caused older people to express unrealistic fear for their children and for our nation's future. This was the period when the younger generation developed a keen sense of alienation from the older generation and the establishment with all its political, social and religious institutions. They went searching for new answers to age-old questions, such as the value of the individual, the authority of the state, truth, justice, and the meaning of life. Alienation came in many forms and is aimed at different targets. Much of this generation’s music was an expression of the anguish and alienation the young felt towards the older generation, the government, and the confinement of the society they lived in. They attempted to address the important issues generated by the unique events of the period. So, in a way the music of the sixties is explained by the simple clichà © that music was a product of the culture that created it.... Free Essays on Music Of The 60's - A Clashing Of Generations Free Essays on Music Of The 60's - A Clashing Of Generations MUSIC OF THE 60’S - A CLASHING OF GENERATIONS The Sixties were an exciting revolutionary period of time with great social and technological change. Some people called it the â€Å"decade of discontent† because of the race riots and demonstrations against the Vietnam War. The sixties were about assassination, unforgettable fashions, civil rights, and sexual freedom. All of these components caused a revolutionary change in the world of popular music. In the sixties, music mirrored the tensions of the era, and played an important role in changing American culture. The verbal content of rock songs turned toward rebellion, social protest, sex, and drugs. Rock and Roll was for and about adolescents. Its lyrics articulated teenage and young adult's problems and concerns. All aspects of the music, its heavy beat, loudness, self-absorbed lyrics, indicated a defiance of adult values and authority. This defiance caused older people to express unrealistic fear for their children and for our nation's future. This was the period when the younger generation developed a keen sense of alienation from the older generation and the establishment with all its political, social and religious institutions. They went searching for new answers to age-old questions, such as the value of the individual, the authority of the state, truth, justice, and the meaning of life. Alienation came in many forms and is aimed at different targets. Much of this generation’s music was an expression of the anguish and alienation the young felt towards the older generation, the government, and the confinement of the society they lived in. They attempted to address the important issues generated by the unique events of the period. So, in a way the music of the sixties is explained by the simple clichà © that music was a product of the culture that created it....

Is the thesis proved Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Is the thesis proved - Essay Example Trumpener specifies that chemical warfare was in existence prior to world war one and that it is not the Germans that brought into existences, but instead they proved to the world that it is a force with which to reckon. (Trumpener, 1975) This is especially with the death of allied soldiers, who died immediately, and other who were left suffering after exposure to chlorine gas that was dispersed by wind. A similar case is brought forth with the French applying canisters that only caused temporary discomfort and few fatalities, as opposed to the case of the Germans. The French chemical warfare entailed application of gas to irritate the eyes and a choking sensation while the German one focused on the elimination of the allied enemy. In addition, the lethality of the French chemical warfare was not guaranteed as it used low doses and in small volumes in dispersal as opposed to the German gas. The German’s were intent on killing all their enemies hence releasing over 150 tons of chlorine gas against allied forces (Trumpener, 1975). The claims and complaints by the allied forces against the Germans; on the unfairness of gas use proves that this was the very first encounter with poison gas on a massive scale. The use of chemical warfare came under strong criticism as it was viewed as a foul move since the Germans gained no advantage after poisoning the allied forces. In addition, following the lack of preparation by the allied forces, who were considered well equipped in the war, further proves the introduction of chemical warfare. After the war in the 1919, there was increased activity as the article shows, on the production of poison gas and other agents of chemical warfare, where there was more research on the use of chemical weapons, especially on the German side. In addition, the use of chemical gas had been prohibited in 1899 in The Hague by the peace conference, which had limited

Advantages and disadvantages of outsourcing in IT Project Management Research Paper

Advantages and disadvantages of outsourcing in IT Project Management - Research Paper Example This research will begin with the statement that in most of the businesses today, the sole aim is to operate at optimum levels, where they reduce as many costs as possible and increase revenues to their best. In cost reduction, it is about reducing expenditure, especially expenditure, and ensuring that they use the cheapest products and services as possible. For instance, a company might be in need of a certain service for just but a short period of time. It could also be in need of such a service seasonally and not throughout. It would then be quite expensive and unnecessary to hire a full-time professional to handle that task for a short period then stay idle for a larger amount of time. In such cases, the company could consider hiring that professional on a contractual kind of a relationship. This is the primary concept lying behind outsourcing. Outsourcing is essentially the act of assigning certain business processes or activities to an external party that can help in handling t hem. Most of the time, large organizations cannot handle all their processes internally, either because they are too complex, bulky, or seasonal. The more common reason is the temporary nature of some tasks, such that the company is not willing to hire professionals permanently to carry out these activities from within. When the company then outsources the work to the external service provider, they accord them the responsibility of handling that activity all by themselves and maintaining the firm’s interests and assets at the same time.